Trifolium pratense - Red Clover

• Family: Leguminosae/Fabaceae - Legume/Pea Family

Identification
"Trifolium pratense is a PERENNIAL growing to 0.6 m (2ft) by 0.6 m (2ft in) at a medium rate.
It is hardy to zone (UK) 6 and is not frost tender. It is in flower from May to September, and the seeds ripen from Jul to October. The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Bees, lepidoptera.It can fix Nitrogen."
"It is noted for attracting wildlife."
"Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils, prefers well-drained soil and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It prefers moist soil. The plant can tolerates strong winds but not maritime exposure.^[PFAF]

• Synonyms
  • Trifolium pratense var. frigidum auct. non Gaudin ^[E-flora]
  • Trifolium pratense var. sativum (Mill.) Schreb. ^[E-flora]
• Origin Status: Exotic ^[E-flora]
• General: "Perennial or biennial herb from a taproot; stems several, ascending to erect, soft-hairy, 20-70 cm tall." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• Leaves: "Alternate, palmately compound; leaflets 3 (rarely 4), lance-elliptic to egg-shaped, 2-6 cm long, obscurely toothed, often with a white, crescent-shaped spot towards the base, soft-hairy; stipules narrowly egg-shaped, 1-3 cm long, green-veined, narrowed to a bristle-tip." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• Flowers: "Inflorescence a dense, globe-shaped, terminal head of 50 to 200, ascending to spreading, pea-like flowers, the heads 2.5-3.5 cm wide, more or less unstalked, lacking involucres; corollas pink-purple to deep red, 11-20 mm long; calyces 1/2-2/3 as long as the corollas, the tube narrowly bell-shaped, short-hairy on the outside and stiff-hairy in the throat, 10-veined, the teeth needle-like, bristly, the lower 3 about twice as long as the upper 2." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• Fruits: "Pods, egg-shaped, about 2 mm long; seeds 2." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• Habitat / Range: "Mesic to dry roadsides, fields, meadows and waste places in the lowland, steppe and montane zones; common in BC S of 55o N, rare northward; introduced from Eurasia.' ^{[IFBC-E-flora]} "Meadows, pastures and other grassy places[9], especially on calcareous soils. Usually found on circumneutral soils[17]. Europe, including Britain, from Norway south and east to Spain and W. Asia." ^[PFAF] "Clovers occur virtually everywhere in subarctic North America. Red clover (T. pratense) is raised commercially for fodder and to nourish honeybees." ^{[Gibbons SHH]}

USDA Flower Colour: Red
USDA Blooming Period: Late Spring
USDA Fruit/Seed characteristics:

Colour: Brown

Present from Spring to Summer ^{[USDA-E-flora]}

Hazards

• Livestock Poisoning: "Poisonous properties. Said to cause tympanites in cattle and slobbering in horses." ^[MPP2] "This plant is also involved in a condition called congenital joint laxity and dwarfism, which occurs sporadically across the northern part of British Columbia, Alberta, and Ontario. This disorder results in teratogenic problems in beef calves when their dams have overwintered exclusively on clover and grass silage. Red clover can also develop phytoestrogens, which affect fertility in livestock (Cheeke and Schull 1985, Ribble et al. 1989)." ^{[CBIF PPIS]}
• Diseased Plants: "Diseased clover, even if no symptoms of disease are visible, can contain toxic alkaloids[222]." "The toxic indolizidine alkaloid slaframine is often found in diseased clover (even if the clover shows no external symptoms of disease). This alkaloid is being studied for its antidiabetic and anti-AIDS activity[222]." ^[PFAF]
• Gastric Discomfort: "Bloat is a common problem for livestock (and humans) when eating a lot of Clover. It is caused when digestive gases combine with substances in the plant to form a foam. Native Americans sometimes dipped the leaves in salt water to prevent this, or they ate them with California Bay Laurel nuts (umbellularia)." ^[UWP] "Urticarial reactions have been documented.(G51) In view of the oestrogenic constituents, excessive ingestion should be avoided." ^[HerbalMed3] "Ingesting of this plant can cause bloat in animals." ^{[CBIF PPIS]}
• Contraindications: "Red Clover may potentiate the effects of anticoagulant drugs. [MHC][HMHE] Contraindicated in pregnancy." ^[HMHE]

Edible Uses

• Plant: The entire plant is edible ^[Wild][EMPW]and nutritious.^[EMPW]
• Flowers: Raw or dried. Stock, Tea, Flour nutritive. ^[Wild] Flowers eaten by some Upriver Halkomelem of British Columbia. ^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]} The newly opened individual flowers have been added to salads. Used fresh or dried. A fairly sweet flavor. ^[UWP]
  • Tea: The dried flowers make an enjoyable tea. ^[EMPW]
• Leaves: Very young leaves are the best. ^[Wild] "Leaves and young flowering heads - raw or cooked[2, 55, 105, 183]. The young leaves are harvested before the plant comes into flower, and are used in salads, soups etc[9]. On their own they can be used as a vegetable, cooked like spinach[9].The leaves are best cooked[172]. They can be dried, powdered and sprinkled on foods such as boiled rice[183]. The leaves contain 81% water, 4% protein, 0.7% fat, 2.6% fibre and 2% ash[218].^[PFAF] The dried leaves impart a vanilla flavour to cakes etc[172]." ^[PFAF] "This and other species of Clover are eaten raw or as a salad by the Indians of California, Arizona, and elsewhere. Probably difficult to digest." ^[EWP] "Native Americans in California... ate the young spring leaves in large quantities." "The young spring leaves can be eaten raw, but are more easily digested if cooked for 5 - 10 minutes. They are better when mixed with other greens." ^[UWP]
• Root: "Root - cooked[172, 177]. A delicate sweet herb tea is made from the fresh or dried flowers[21, 55, 183]." ^[PFAF] Dried. Added to stews. ^[Wild]
• Flowers & Seedpods: "Flowers and seed pods - dried, ground into a powder and used as a flour[115]. The young flowers can also be eaten raw in salads[144, 172]."^[PFAF]
• Seeds: "The seed can be sprouted and used in salads. A crisp texture and more robust flavour than alfalfa (Medicago sativa)[183]. The seeds are reported as containing trypsin inhibitors[218]. These can interfere with certain enzymes that help in the digestion of proteins, but are normally destroyed if the seed is sprouted first." ^[PFAF] The cleaned seed can be sprouted for salad greens like Alfalfa. It has also been ground to flour, and mixed with wheat flour for baking bread. ^{[Tozer UWP]}

Other Uses

• Dye: "A yellow dye is obtained from the flowers[46, 61]." ^[PFAF]

Medicinal Uses

"Red clover is safe and effective herb with a long history of medicinal usage. It is commonly used to treat skin conditions, normally in combination with other purifying herbs such as Arctium lappa and Rumex crispus[254]. It is a folk remedy for cancer of the breast, a concentrated decoction being applied to the site of the tumour in order to encourage it to grow outwards and clear the body[254]. Flavonoids in the flowers and leaves are oestrogenic and may be of benefit in the treatment of menopausal complaints[254]."^[PFAF]

• Phytoestrogens "It was found that sheep in Australia that grazed red clover became infertile due to the great amounts of phytoestrogens it contained... this plant is used to treat and relieve symptoms that occur in postmenopausal women (hot flushes, cardiovascular health effects, breast cancers and osteoporosis)." ^[DWH]
• "Many isoflavone preparations derived from red clover are available nowadays as nutritional supplements [6]." ^[DWH]
• "Red clover also has antioxidant activity that may be result of the presence of different flavonoids and other phenolic compounds such as phenolic acids, clovamides and saponins. It has also been used in traditional medicine to treat whooping cough, asthma, eczema and eye diseases [7]." ^[DWH]
• Essential Oil: "There is an opinion that the percentage of monoterpenes is reduced as plants age, as well as due to mechanical damage [16], which also coincides with our results... essential oil obtained from the plant in lowest growth stage (TP1) presents the highest content of compounds."^[PNA]
• Wound Healing: "...the leaves of Trifolium pratense var. pratense... used for wound healing in Eastern Anatolia, Artvin, Yusufeli provincies ( Sezik et al., 1997). Besides, the flowers of Trifolium pratense (red clover) are recorded to be used as anti-inflammatory and in the treatment of chronic skin diseases, eczema, psoriasis and rheumatism worldwide ( Sabudak and Guler, 2009 and Tita et al., 2009)." "The wound healing potential of these plants might be attributed to the isoflavone constituents present in the aerial parts, which may be either due to their individual or additive effect, that speeds up the process." ^[DWH]
• Plant:
  • Part used: Flowerhead.^{[HerbalMed3][MHC][HMHE]} Terminal leaves with flowers.^[MPPW] Blossoms and leaves.^[IHNA]
  • Harvesting: "The plant is normally harvested for use as it comes into flower[222, 238] and some reports say that only the flowers are used[4]." ^[PFAF]
  • Anticancer: It has also shown anticancer activity[172, 218], poultices of the herb have been used as local applications to cancerous growths[4]." ^[PFAF] "The ability of the isoflavone biochanin A to inhibit carcinogen activation in cells in culture suggests that in vivo studies of this compound as a potential chemopreventive agent are warranted (Cassady et al., 1988)." ^[PTFC] "The whole plant or its various parts (leaves, flowers, roots, etc.) have also been extensively used in treating cancers.[37]" ^{[Leung ECNI]} "Trifolium has been used as a cancer remedy by virtue of specific alterative properties said to exist in it. It was at one time widely advertised... It is given where a cancerous diathesis is known to be present, and its use is persisted in for months. Improvement in objective phenomena is reported from a number of excellent observers." ^'[Ellingwood]^'
  • Internal Use: "Internally, the plant is used in the treatment of skin complaints (especially eczema and psoriasis), cancers of the breast, ovaries and lymphatic system, chronic degenerative diseases, gout, whooping cough and dry coughs[238]." ^[PFAF]
  • Leaves & Flowers:
    • Fomentations and poultices of the herb have been used as local treatment.^[PTFC]
    • The fluid extract is used as an alterative and antispasmodic.^[PTFC]
• Flowers: Dried flowers were sometimes smoked to relieve asthma. ^[EMPC] "flowers used in the form of a cold tea by Iroquois women for ‘‘the change of life’’ (MOERMAN)." ^{[Leung ECNI]}
  • "Tea made from red clover flowers is recommended by herbalists as a mild sedative and as a treatment for asthma, bronchitis, coughing, headaches and arthritic pain." ^[EMPC] "Clover blossom tea is thought to stimulate the liver and bladder, and is sometimes used as a diuretic. It is also a carminative and possibly a mild sedative." ^[UWP]

Further Medicinal Usage

"It is indicated for debilitated individuals and children with spasmodic coughs, salivary gland congestion, pharyngeal inflammation and chronic skin eruptions. Red clover is specific for swollen hard nodes, especially for single nodes and a stiff neck with cramping in the sternomastoid muscles that is relieved by heat and massage." ^[HMHE]

"Admirable for malignant ulcers, scrofula, indolent sores, burns, whooping cough and various spasm, bronchial and renal conditions. The warm tea is very soothing to the nerves. J. Kloss, in "Back to Eden", gives a splendid formula for the above, Combine with equal parts of: Burdock (Arctium lappa),Yellow Dock (Rumex crispus). Red Clover can be used alone, or supported by many other effective herbs." ^[IHNA]

• "Folk Medicine: Clover flowers are used as tea, decoctions, Nastoika (with Vodka) for children of all ages when anaemic, as the properties are nutritious, aiding general weakness and shortness of breath. A female assistant to stop bleeding of amenorrhoea. Decoction of herbs for coughs.^[IHNA]
• "Externally: Clover is known to Russians as being a strong natural antiseptic, and is adaptable as poultices for burns and abscesses. Fresh leaf juice is used for external eye wash. Decoction of leaves and salt as a poultice for headache."^[IHNA] "Decoctions, teas and salves made of this plant can be applied externally to treat athlete's foot, mastitis, soft tissue inflammations, sores, burns, ulcers and other skin afflictions." ^[EMPC] "Red clover blossoms have been long and successfully used in the form of a salve for the removal of external cancer and indolent ulcers. A tea is also helpful to bathe the affected part, making it fresh daily." ^[IHNA] "Red Clover is a useful remedy for children with skin problems. It may be used with complete safety for any case of childhood eczema, and can be effective for other chronic skin conditions as well such as psoriasis. While it is very appropriate for children, it may also be of value for adults." ^[MHC]
• Throat: "The agent is also prescribed in irritable conditions of the larynx and air passages, especially if evidenced by spasmodic cough. It has served a good purpose in whooping cough, in the cough of measles, and in general bronchial or pulmonary irritation. A dry, irritable cough will respond most readily to its influence." ^[Ellingwood] "Red Clover's expectorant and antispasmodic actions give this reedy a role in the treatment of coughs and bronchitis, especially whooping cough. As an alterative, it is indicated as part of a holistic approach for a wide range of problems. There is some evidence to suggest that it has an antieoplastic action in animals. Piest and Priest described red clover as a ...mild, stimulating and relaxing alterative with a special affinity for the throat and salivary glands. Especially indicated for debilitated children with chronic bronchial or throat conditions." ^[MHC]
• "As a gargle for sore and inflamed throat , make a strong tea and gargle four or five times a day, swallowing a fresh mouthful after each cleansing." ^[IHNA]
• Menopause: Red Clover is a major herbal treatment for symptoms of menopause and contains four phytoestrogenic isoflavonoids in significant amounts.Clinical efficacy against some symptoms is available, but there is continuing controversy over whether or not they act as estrogens (potentially promoting cancer) or anti-estrogens (preventing cancer) in breast tissue. [EMPC]
  
• Clover Tea: Has been taken to treat coughs, fevers, sore throats, rheumatism and gout and applied topically to treat skin diseases. It's high tannin content makes it rather astringent, which may explain some of these uses. [EMPC] A Tea is made for fevers. [PC] Although all kinds of claims are made or this herb, it is a sound and efficacious tea, supplying essential minerals in free ion form, as well as small amounts of sedative constituents. Combines well with Alfafa (Medicago) and Nette. This is further delineated in Nettle. [MPPW]
  
• Blood Purifier: Red clover has long been used as a blood purifier (called "queen of the blood purifiers" by some herbalists) and is reputed to stimulate the liver and to remove toxins from the blood. In ancient Rome, clover seeds soaked in wine or clover plants boiled in water were used as antidotes for the poisonous bites an stings of snakes and scorpions. It has been shown to contain blood thinning compounds related to coumarin.[EMPC][EMPW] Red clover has long been regarded as a traditional "blood purifier" by Chinese and Western Herbalists. [EMPW]
  
• Homeopathic Clinical: Tincture of flower heads - cancer, constipaton, cough, mumps, pancreas (affections of) throat (sore; mucus in), uvula (pain in).[IHNA]
  
• "It possesses very soothing and pleasant-tasting properties and promotes healthy granulation."[IHNA]
  
• Misc:
  
  • Douch/Enema "Also of use for recal and vaginal irritation, making sure to hold in the solution for several minutes before releasing." ^[IHNA]
  • "Dr. Lambert is of the opinion that trifolium has a direct action in improving the nutrition of the brain. He thinks it is demanded when the patient is overworked; when there is general mental failure, with loss of memory of words, or when there is confusion of ideas of functional causes; also when there is weakness of the lower extremities, or of the feet from deficient capillary circulation." ^[Ellingwood]

Phytochemicals

Flower Head
"Isoflavones (biochanin A, daidzein, formononetin,genisein, pratensein, trifoside); other flavonoids, including pectolinarin and kaempferol; volatile oil (containing furfural); clovamides (L-dopa-caffeic acid conjugates); coumarins (coumestrol,medicagol, coumarin); miscellaneous: a galactomannan, resins, minerals, vitamins, phytoalexins." ^[MHC]

• Carbohydrates "Arabinose, glucose, glucuronic acid, rhamnose, xylose (following hydrolysis of saponin glycosides); polysaccharide (a galactoglucomannan)." ^[HerbalMed3]
• Coumarins Coumarin, medicagol. ^[HerbalMed3]
• Isoflavonoids "Biochanin A, daidzein, formononetin, genistein, pratensin, trifoside, calycosine galactoside(1) and pectolinarin. Flavonoids Isorhamnetin, kaempferol, quercetin, and their glycosides.(2)" ^[HerbalMed3] "...Trifolium canescens and Trifolium pratense var. pratense contain all primary isoflavones, genistein, formononetin, daidzein and biochanin A. Genistein is the predominant isoflavone in both species."^[DWH]
• Saponins "Soyasapogenols B–F (C–F artefacts) and carbohydrates (see above) yielded by acid hydrolysis.(3)" ^[HerbalMed3]
• Other constituents "Coumaric acid, phaseolic acid, salicylic acid, trans- and cis-clovamide (L-dopa conjugated with trans- and ciscaffeic acids), resin, volatile oil (containing furfural),(4) fats, vitamins and minerals." ^[HerbalMed3]
• Volatile oil: "including among others, benzyl alcohol, 2-phenyl ethanol, their formates and acetates, methyl salicylate, methyl anthranilate (likely only in the fresh blossoms)" ^[PDR]
• Cyanogenic glycosides "have been documented for a related species, Trifolium repens.(G33)" ^[HerbalMed3] "Cyanogenic glycosides: presumably lotaustralin, linamarin" ^[PDR]

Nutritional

Figures in grams (g) or milligrams (mg) per 100g of food.
Leaves (Fresh weight)
0 Calories per 100g
Water : 81%
Protein: 4g; Fat: 0.7g; Carbohydrate: 0g; Fibre: 2.6g; Ash: 2g;
Reference: [218] ^[PFAF]

Pharmacology

• Flowers: "The flowering heads are alterative, antiscrofulous, antispasmodic, aperient, detergent, diuretic, expectorant, sedative and tonic[4, 21, 165, 218, 238]." ^[PFAF]
• antiangiogenic: "...very good antiangiogenic effect of red clover extracts. The strongest antiangiogenic effect was observed for daidzein. The red clover extract and genistein revealed the same activity as thalidomide, one of the positive controls. The activity of biochanin A was weak, but higher than the one of suramin as the second positive control. No effect was observed for formononetin." ^[DWH]
• anti-inflammatory: "The anti-inflammatory effect of daidzein and genistein was almost comparable to the positive control hydrocortisone at the same dosage. Biochanin A and red clover extract were only slightly less active and formononetin remained without effect.... results showed the potential of red clover in the inhibition of chronic inflammation. For this effect the isoflavones daidzein, genistein, and biochanin A seemed to be responsible" ^[DWH]
• Actions: Alterative ^{[MHC][IHNA][HMHE]}, expectorant ^[MHC][MHHE],antispasmodic ^[MHC], Sedative ^{[IHNA][HMHE][Leung ECNI]}, deobstruent ^[IHNA], antitumor ^[HMHE], Lymphagogue ^[HMHE]. "(a) Mild antispasmodic,... (d) Blood thinner, (e) Mild alterative with a special affinity for the lungs, throat and salivary glands." ^[HMHE] diuretic, antitussive ^{[Leung ECNI]}
• Taste/Smell: Sweet.^[HMHE]
• Tendencies: Cooling. ^[HMHE]
• Solvents: Boiling water, alcohol.^[IHNA]

Dosages

• "Preparation: Liquid extract 1:1 can be prepared in 25 % ethanol." ^[PDR]
• "Daily Dosage: The daily dosage is 4 gm of drug, taken as an infusion, up to 3 times a day. Alternately, 1.5 to 3 ml of the liquid extract can be taken 3 times daily." ^[PDR]
• "Liquid extract 1.5–3.0 mL (1 : 1 in 25% alcohol) three times daily.(G6, G7)" ^[HerbalMed3] 1:1 fresh + dry strength liquid extract: 10-60 drops 1-4 times per day.^[HMHE]
• "Tincture 1–2mL (1 : 10 in 45% alcohol) three times daily.(G6, G7)" ^[HerbalMed3] "Tincture dosage is 2 to 4 ml three times a day(1:5 in 40%)." "The BHP recommends 4g dried herb or 1 to 2 ml of tincture (1:10 in 45%) three times a day.[MHC] "Of the tincture, 5 to 30 drops in water, according to age and purose." ^[IHNA]
• Infusion: "To make an infusion, pour 1 cup of boiling water over 1 to 3 teaspoons of dried herb and infuse for 10 to 15 minutes. This should be drunk three times a day." ^[MHC] "Internally, as an infusion, 1 teaspoon of Clover to 1 cupful of boiling water, steeped 30 min. or more. Take 4-6 cupfuls a day, children less." ^[IHNA] "Standard infusion or strong decoction. 4 to 6 fluid ounces, up to three times a day-i.e., a good, stiff cup of tea." ^[MPPW] "1 tablespoon per cup of water. 1-4 times per day." ^[HMHE] "Dried flowerhead 4 g as an infusion three times daily.(G6, G7)"^[HerbalMed3] Dose, from one to sixty minims. ^[Ellingwood]

Cultivation

"The plant makes a good green manure, it is useful for over-wintering, especially in a mixture with Lolium perenne[54]. Deep rooting, it produces a good bulk[87]. It is a host to 'clover rot' however, so should not be used too frequently[87]. It can be undersown with cereals though it may be too vigorous[87]. It is also grown with grass mixtures for land reclamation, it has good nitrogen fixing properties[200]." ^[PFAF]

• "Succeeds in a moist, well-drained circum-neutral soil in full sun[200]. Prefers a medium-heavy loam[87]. A short-lived perennial[200]. A very hardy plant, tolerating temperatures down to at least -23°c[238]. A very important food plant for the caterpillars of many butterfly and moth species[30]. It is also a good bee plant[54], but not so valuable as the white clover, T. repens[4]. It grows well in an apple orchard, the trees will produce tastier fruit that stores better[201]." ^[PFAF]
• Mite: "It should not be grown with camellias or gooseberries because it harbours a mite that can cause fruit drop in the gooseberries and premature budding in the camellias[201]." ^[PFAF]
• Genetic Diversity: "Very polymorphic, there are many subspecies and varieties." ^[PFAF]
• Nitrogen Fixation: "This species has a symbiotic relationship with certain soil bacteria, these bacteria form nodules on the roots and fix atmospheric nitrogen. Some of this nitrogen is utilized by the growing plant but some can also be used by other plants growing nearby[200]. Buttercups growing nearby depress the growth of the nitrogen bacteria by means of a root exudate[201]." ^[PFAF]
• Fertilizer: An acre planted in Clover may recieve 100 - 500 pounds of nitrogen anually, which is the equivalent of up to 10 tons of manure. ^[UWP]
• Fodder: "Red Clover was once the most important commercial forage crop in North America and is still very important. However the protein rich leaves can cause digestive problems, so must be used in moderation. They also contain minute amounts of estrogen and have caused animals to abort." ^[UWP]

Propagation

"Pre-soak the seed for 12 hours in warm water and then sow in spring in situ. If the seed is in short supply it might be better to sow it in pots in a cold frame. When they are large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into individual pots and plant them out in late spring. Division in spring[238]." ^[PFAF]

References

1. [CBIF PPIS] Trifolium pratense, Poisonous Plants Information System, Accessed Feb 15, 2015, http://www.cbif.gc.ca/eng/species-bank/canadian-poisonous-plants-information-system/all-plants-scientific-name/trifolium-pratense/?id=1370403267033
2. [E-flora] Trifolium pratense, http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Trifolium pratense&redblue=Both&lifeform=7 [Accessed: 12/1/2014 8:41:38 PM ]
3. [PFAF] Trifolium pratense, Accessed Feb 15, 2015, http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Trifolium+pratense
4. [PNA] Trifolium pratense L. as a Potential Natural Antioxidant, Sanja Vlaisavljevic , Biljana Kaurinovic , Mira Popovic , Maja Djurendic-Brenesel , Bojana Vasiljevic , Dragoljub Cvetkovic and Sanja Vasiljevic, Molecules 2014, 19, 713-725